Typology of the ecological impacts of biological invasions

Biological invasions alter ecosystems by disrupting ecological processes that can degrade biodiversity, harm human health, and cause massive economic bur-dens. Existing frameworks to classify the ecological impacts either miss many types of impact or conflate mechanisms (causes) with the impacts themselves (consequences). We propose a comprehensive typology of 19 types of ecologi-cal impact across six levels of ecological organisation. This allows more accurate diagnosis of the cause of impact and can help triage management options to tackle each impact–mechanism combination. We integrated the typology with broad ecological concepts such as energy, mass, and information flow and stor-age. By highlighting cascading effects across multiple levels, this typology pro-vides a clearer framework for documenting, and communicating invasion impacts, thereby improving management and research.